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| National Action Programme on Land Degradation and Desertification (UNCCD) |
Chapter 4: Ecosystem Conservation Practices
Local people have started concerted efforts to manage their natural resources including soil and water as an integral part of livelihood in order to address the decline in forest area and forest's growth stock, and agricultural production. Nepal has accumulated a vast experience of knowledge, developed traditional technologies and used them in land, forest and water management. Nepal has also formulated policies, enacted legislation and other necessary instruments to empower local people in resource management. This chapter documents some of the achievements on soil conservation and watershed management and natural resource conservation aspects through people's participation. This is likely to enhance awareness and promote replication of best practices in similar ecological zones.
4.1 Forests
The National Forest Plan, 1976 for the first time realised the need for mobilising local people in forest management. The Panchayat Forest Rules and Panchayat Protected Forest Rules 1978 were enforced to involve and recognise the rights of the local people over forests. Although the Decentralisation Act, 1982 empowered the district and village panchayats - the political bodies at the local level - to form the user committee, the Act did not yield encouraging results on real participation of the local people in forest management (Shrestha, 2001). This prompted to incorporate the concept of forest user group in the Forestry Sector Master Plan 1989. Accordingly, forest policies were re-formulated by opening avenues to handover the government-managed forest to user groups. The Forest Act, 1993 and the Forest Rules, 1995 made provisions to hand over such forests to community forestry user groups (CFUGs) as priority government programmes. The forest laws also made provisions to define government-managed forests in the form of leasehold forests, private forests, and religious forests. In order to promote users participation, approaches such as operationalising the guidelines, re-orientation of the field staff, grass-root planning, institutional capacity building and NGO's participation have been adopted. All users, rich and poor, men and women could be members of the user groups and get benefit equitably from the forests. The community forestry is considered an improved version of the indigenous forest management system of Nepal (Shrestha, 2001).
Through the community forestry programme, HMG has handed over about 0.859 million ha of government-managed forests to 11,147 CFUGs and about 1.223 million people are benefited by being a member of such groups as of 18 June 2002. The number of CFUGs has doubled within the last five years, which was only 5,300 users in the mid-April 1996. Of the 11,147 CFUGs formed so far, over 440 CFUGs are exclusively managed by women. In the rest of CFUGs, about 22 per cent of FUG committees are women. Women participation in forest management is encouraging and their enthusiasm and participation may likely reshape our barren hills with luxurious vegetation.
Again, encouraging results have been achieved in group formation and handover in leasehold forestry programmes. Over 1,650 leasehold forestry user groups are formed and over 7,000 ha of forests are handed over as leasehold forests to poor people. This has been one of the effective programmes for poverty alleviation. Data indicates that over 25 per cent of the total leasehold forests are managed by women user groups. Women are coming ahead in managing the natural forests, at least in the forestry sector. HMG has also registered about 2,100 ha of government-managed forests in the form of private forests and has handed over to 2,170 institutions or individuals within the same period. These initiatives have greatly contributed to bring the local people into the mainstream of managing different categories of forests.
As the forestry laws provide the users with an opportunity to use all benefits generated from the management and sustainable use of such forests, almost all CFUGs have secured economic benefits, which are used for community development (Box 1).
Box 1
Economic Benefits of Community Forests
A 21.5 ha of government-managed forests of Kavre district in central mid-hill (Dhulikhel Municipality) was handed over to Gaukhureshwor CFUG in December 1995. Thirty-five households are involved in managing this forest. CFUG's continuous effort for the last several years has resulted in the increment of leaf litter, fodder and other forest products, and quantity of water. This effort has also improved soil fertility, and increased crop and livestock products.
The users have made rules and regulation for the management and utilisation of forest products. The forest is opened for 28 days every year from mid-November to mid-March to collect one head load of firewood/family/day. The users also get seasonal employment in nursery works, plantation, weeding, value added processing of Japanese lokta (Edigworthia popyrifeba) and alaichi (Amomum subulatum). The user group earned about NRs. 252 thousand between 1996/97 and 1998/99. A study has concluded net saving of 3.625 hours per family per day after the formation of this CFUG, resulting to over 46 thousand hours of saving a year for total households. At the rate of 8 hours working day, and Rs. 75/day, the monetary value reaches NRs. 0.434 million a year. Although small in size, this community forest has a great potentiality for additional economic benefits to local communities and environmental conservation.
Source:Roy, 1999
Some of the community forests are now over 15 years old, and the quality of forests has improved during this period. Some studies on increment rate analysis indicate low growth rate. As the forest products extracted in such areas exceed the local demand, HMG and local people are planning to operate forest-based industries such as sawmills, paper industries for utilising additional products in a sustainable manner. This will generate more income for community development (Box 2). The benefits could again be utilised for forest development and management, as the CFUGs should spend at least 25 per cent of the total benefits in forestry sector.
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Box 2
Commercial Utilisation of Community Forestry Products
Severe degradation of forests in Sindhupalchok district in the mid-1970s prompted the local people for plantations till the end of 1990s and such community plantations reached about 12 thousand hectares. After the launching of community forestry (CF) programme, HMG handed over about 18 thousand ha of planted and national forests to the CF user groups (CFUGs). Although, "plant only concept" remained till 1980s, CFUGs have started harvesting and selling of surplus forest products since mid-1990s. Overstocking of the community forests, dominated by over 20 years old pines (Pinus roxburghii and P. patula) encouraged the District Forest Office (DFO) and the Nepal-Australia Community Resource Management Project (NACRMP) to conceptualise the operation of a joint sawmill to utilise the planted pines of Chautara ridge areas. Some CFUGs discussed and decided to operate such a facility but this joint approach did not materialise. Finally, the Shree Chhap CFUG came forward in this endeavour.
Two hundred and six households are managing Shree Chhap CF forests of 125 ha. Women, poor and rich people have equal access and play an active role in decision-making process in this CFUG. The pine-dominated forest is considered overstocked, and an increment rate analysis study carried out by DFO and NACRMP showed low growth rate of pine since the last decade. This led to amend the Operational Plan (OP) and it has estimated the possible extraction of about 15 thousand cft of wood annually.
With a view to promote sustainable use of forest products, CFUG members discussed several times within themselves and with DFO and NACRMP officials, and the CFUG's General Assembly decided to operate a sawmill based on the revised Operational Plan. The CFUG has registered the sawmill as a cottage industry. In that connection, DFO and NACRMP provided training to CFUG members on tree measurement, calculation, marking and selection for tree felling.
This new venture will likely develop a replicable model to promote sustainable use of people managed forests, and generate more income for community development.
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Source: MOPE, 2001
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The community forestry programme has been strengthened all over the country. In order to strengthen and protect the interests of CFUG's, the users have formed a Federation of Community Users Nepal (FECOFUN) and this has established offices in 71 districts (out of 75 districts) by April 2002.
A decade of experience shows that, the benefit sharing mechanism does not differentiate the rich and poor. In other words, each member of the user group receives equal benefit although the poor people depend more on forests. The focus is still on the timber species while the benefits could be maximised through the sustainable use of non-timber forest products and cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants as well. In the recent years, HMG has developed a mechanism to encourage the conservation and sustainable use NWFPs within the CFUGs. As the number of users is increasing over the years, there is a need for providing technical support to the users continuously on forest management, sustainable use, and equitable sharing of benefits with focus on poor people.
4.2 Soil and Water
As mentioned above, soil conservation and watershed management activities have been implemented in Nepal by grouping them into following five broad headings:
- Land use planning - prepare and implement watershed, and sub-watershed management plans, and provide technical service for land use development;
- Land productivity conservation - restore and improve productivity of private and community lands through biological measures such as on-farm conservation, fuel-fodder-fruit plantation, grass plantation, greenbelt/shelterbelt development, agro-forestry, nursery operation and conservation plantation;
- Infrastructure protection - stabilise and protect infrastructures such as reservoirs, irrigation systems, roads etc. through bio-engineering measures;
- Natural hazard prevention - treat gullies and landslides, control torrent, protect stream bank and rehabilitate degraded lands through check dams, retaining walls, diversion channels, grass sowing and tree plantation etc.; and
- Community soil conservation and extension - develop broad package including conservation demonstration; conduct extension education, training, study tours, exhibitions, competitions; support community development groups by strengthening and institutionalisation process; and develop and transfer conservation technologies.
Traditional practices, knowledge and know-how blended with scientific approaches have been promoted during the implementation of these programmes. As soil conservation and watershed management activities take considerable time to pay back, income generation activities have been incorporated to gain the confidence of the local people. Saving and Credit programmes have also been integrated as an alternative banking through local institutions in some watersheds. The Bagmati Integrated Watershed Management Programme, under implementation with the assistance of Commission of European Communities, has provided NRs. 4.8 million on credit by June 2001 in three districts (Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Makawanpur) to support integrated development programmes of the farmers, private entrepreneurs, and cooperatives. The micro-finance initiatively has benefited 289 individual members and the repayment rate of the first instalment was 100 per cent. This scheme will reach at least 1000 beneficiary groups and 30 marketing cooperatives by the end of the Project, i.e., 31 December 2003 (Shakya, 2001). Efforts are also underway to organise the poorest of the poor in some micro-watersheds to benefit them from soil conservation and watershed management activities. In Nepal, most of the women are affected by land degradation process, as they are involved in agricultural production, firewood and fodder collection. Hence, public awareness activities have been institutionalised to seek women's involvement in planning, decision-making, and programme implementation. Similarly, the need for transparency and public auditing has been realised in the recent days to strengthen user group capacity, and build trust and faith (Rimal, 2001).
In Nepal, there is a close relationship amongst the amount of rainfall, runoff and soil loss. In maize, millet, wheat and mustard farms, the relationship between monthly rainfall and runoff is found weak. In areas of having the rainfall above 80 mm/month (threshold of rainfall), the runoff increases rapidly. Soil loss increases rapidly above the monthly rainfall of approximately 250mm (threshold of rainfall) in micro-catchments of Makawanpur district (Johnson, 2001). A study has revealed that up to 65 per cent of the total annual runoff and up to 75 per cent of annual soil loss occur during the monsoon season. This finding calls for re-thinking previous understanding of heavy soil loss during the pre-monsoon season, and also calls upon to continue research in ecological zones to find appropriate conservation measures.
Realisation of the benefits of user group involvement in forest management has provided a basis for the government to replicate this model, i.e., user group mobilisation in other sectors including soil conservation and watershed management since 1990s. Community development (soil and water conservation) groups were formed as part of social mobilisation, and now they have been registered as the community development groups (CDGs) in accordance with the provisions of the Association Registration Act of 1977.
In these activities, people's participation has been the key element. The policy encourages to form user groups and mobilise the local people to carry out soil and water conservation activities. Based on it, the Department of Soil Conservation and Watershed Management has considered the following elements to promote and ensure people's participation. They are:
- Identifying conservation activities that provide profits to farmers;
- Identifying and plan grass root level activities with budget allocation;
- Developing and implement extension programmes to create awareness; and
- Getting people's involvement at all stages of programme planning, implementation, monitoring, evaluation and benefit sharing.
Within this framework, the above activities have been implemented and successes have been achieved at micro level. Users' participation has been instrumental in rehabilitating degraded hill slopes, torrent/stream-bank control through bioengineering techniques, and run-off harvesting dams, particularly in the Siwaliks and foothills. Although people's participation has contributed positively, some pitfalls have also been observed in participatory watershed management activities in some areas. For example, the Upper Andhi Khola Watershed Project contributed about 87 per cent of the total cost of NRs. 113,685/ to protect the surrounding areas and lands downstream of Simle Landslide in the fiscal year 1997/98. The community contracted the work to a group of people and the work was completed successfully through Project fund without any participation of the community, i.e., remaining 13 per cent of users contribution was not used (Sthapit and Bendtsen, 1999). In order to control stream bank erosion in Tanahu district, the users received funds for plantation from the District Soil Conservation Office, and for gabion boxes from District Irrigation Office for the same area, i.e., community received dedicated support from two different line agencies. However, the process has been effective to inject ownership feeling and it has contributed positively to sustain people's initiatives.
Several local practices have been expanded in erosion-prone areas and scientific inputs have been provided to manage the resources (Box 3).
Box 3
Terrace Improvement: Traditional Knowledge Blended with Scientific Know-How
Terracing has been an integral part of land management in the uplands. Studies have shown that soil loss from outward sloping terraces is about three times higher than from level terraces. This has led to improving terracing in many parts of Nepal.
Some people in the Bagmati Watershed Management Programme have started to construct diversion channel to protect land from surface water flow. As the farmhouse itself makes a significant catch area for concentrated runoff, the first few terraces below the house are levelled and supported by stone risers, if necessary, to dissipate water energy and to protect the housing complex from rill and gully formation. As a next step, the downslope contour bunds are constructed at appropriate intervals, and grasses and fodder trees are planted in riser and bunds to meet the fodder and manure requirements. The household wastewater provides moisture for vegetable farming during the dry season. A catch pond is also built to trap water from terraces below the house. This increases moisture and agricultural production and minimise washout of manure and fertilisers. The terrace improvement has contributed in reducing soil erosion and nutrient loss, protect houses from rill and gully formation, promote vegetable farming, generate income, produce more fodder and grass, and conserve soil and water.
Source: MOPE, 2001
As mentioned above, the Siwalik zone is geologically fragile and ecologically vulnerable. Soil conservation in this area requires proven scientific and technological interventions. Local people have started activities to minimise the impacts in the foothills of the Siwaliks (Box 4). Construction of the conservation pond has been integrated into soil conservation and watershed management activities in areas having low water during the dry season with the twin objectives of providing water to livestock and vegetable farming. Such ponds are also developed in the foothills of the Siwaliks to collect monsoon rain and use it in the dry season. Furthermore, income generation activities could attract the local people in soil conservation programmes to meet the twin objectives of land management and income generation (Box 5).
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Box 4
Torrent and Stream Control Through Bioengineering and Catchment Pond
Streams originating from the Siwaliks carry significant quantities of sand, stone, and aggregate during the rainy season. Studies indicate sedimentation of about 50-100 cm sand and aggregates in the fertile farmland of Terai. More fertilisers are required to make them productive. Realising this, people, particularly of Siraha, Saptari and Udayapur districts, with the technical assistance of the respective District Soil Conservation Offices have reclaimed over 60 km of seasonal streams by using local materials such as stone, sand, bamboo and other plants. This low cost bioengineering treatment has been very effective in controlling torrent and regulating stream, minimising downstream sedimentation and providing seasonal employment. This has encouraged the local people to reclaim their unproductive uplands through plantation of firewood, fodder and fruit trees. People have also raised vegetables as an income generation activity in the reclaimed areas.
In order to minimise water scarcity in the foothills of Siwaliks during the dry season, local people have constructed series of run-off harvesting dams (catchment pond) by using local materials such as stone, aggregate, sand and indigenous plants in the Bhabar area to have multiple benefits from controlling torrent/stream, provide irrigation water, increase moisture and maintain greenery, recharge ground water, and also raise fish. This measure is also contributing to increase farm production through moisture retention and to minimise land degradation in the foothills of Siwaliks in Siraha and Saptari district.
Source: MOPE, 2001
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Box 5
Soil Conservation and Income Generation Go Hand in Hand
Located in Trishuli area, the Lower Pipaltar was rich in sal (Shorea robusta) dominated sub-tropical forests four decades ago. During and after the construction of the Devighat Hydroelectric Project, farmers continued to sale forest products and the area was converted to barren land. Gullies and landslides spread towards agricultural land and the settlements along the Tadi River - a tributary of Trishuli River. Scarcity of forest products and drinking water, occurrence of gullies and landslides, and incidence of drought, increase in human population and livestock number, unscientific cultivation and conversion of marginal land to farmland resulted to low production. Local people have formed a Community Development Committee including women's sub-committee to rehabilitate this degraded sub-watershed.
Since 1994, local people started construction of gabion check dams, loose stone check dams, and grass and fodder plantation in gullies and on landslides. They developed local norms, agreed to penalise offenders, prohibited grazing and began livestock stall-feeding. In 1995, the District Soil Conservation Office (DSCO), Nuwakot trained 40 community members on new conservation techniques and organised study tour to show conservation successes. Then people started to plant fruit trees and 25 households raised goats as an income-generating activity with the support of the American Peace Corps/Nepal. Furthermore, the Water Induced Disaster Prevention Technical Centre, and DSCO provided assistance to plant fruit trees in private land in 1996 and a total of 7.36 ha of private land were covered with fruit trees (mangos, litchis and bananas). The District Forest Office also handed over 4.5 ha of government-managed forests to the user groups. These efforts have increased the productivity of the land and water system and the degraded area has been rehabilitated with people's participation.
Source: MOPE, 2001
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Sustainable Development
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EIA - Approved List and EIA on Progress
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Air Quality Monitoring Result
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